Active power factor correction

24/7 stands for general availability in a period of 7 days at 24 hours each. It thus generalizes unrestricted availability.

The blog /blɔg/ or weblog /ˈwɛb.lɔg/ (a combination of the English words web and log for logbook or diary) is a diary or journal, usually kept on a website and thus usually publicly visible, in which at least one person, the blogger, internationally also called weblogger, keeps records, logs (“posts”) facts or writes down thoughts. The activity of writing in a blog is called blogging.

Most of the time, a blog is a chronologically downward sorted list of entries that is paginated at specific intervals. The blogger is the main author of the content, and often the posts are written from a first-person perspective. The blog forms a medium for presenting aspects of one’s life and opinions on specific topics, depending on professionalism, up to the level of an Internet newspaper with special emphasis on comments. Often, readers’ comments or discussions about an article are also possible. This means that the medium can be used for storing notes in a note box, for making information, thoughts and experiences accessible, and somewhat subordinately also for communication, similar to an Internet forum.

CENELEC is the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization. CENELEC is therefore responsible for European standardization in the field of electrical engineering. CENELEC members (2020) are the national electrotechnical committees of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Northern Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and United Kingdom.

CODESYS is a manufacturer-independent IEC 61131-3 automation software for project planning of control systems. Device manufacturers use CODESYS to implement their own programmable and configurable automation components, which are scalable with calculable effort thanks to a wide range of functions.

COMTRADE, an acronym for Common Format for Transient Data Exchange, is a file format specified in IEEE standard C37.111 for storing oscillographic and status data related to transient disturbances in the power system. COMTRADE is maintained by the IEEE Relay Communications Subcommittee of the IEEE Power System Relay Committee (PSRC). More information can be found on the IEEE Power System Relay Committee website.

A CSV file, from the English “comma separated values“,describes the structure of a text file for storing or exchanging simply structured data and ends in the data format with csv.

A general standard for the CSV file format does not exist, but it is described fundamentally in RFC 4180. The character encoding to be used is also not specified; 7-bit ASCII code is widely considered the lowest common denominator.

CSV files can be used to represent tables or a list of different lengths.

More complicated, for example nested data structures can be stored by additional rules or in concatenated CSV files. However, to store them in a file, other formats such as JSON, XML or EDIFACT are more suitable.

However, it is important to know that csv exports usually require appropriate expertise. If you use the MS Excel format, you will notice that Excel translates the files according to the Excel settings, which will lead to changed terms and representations and thus inevitably to conflicts.

The D-A-CH-CZ establishes technical rules for the assessment of network feedback. As can already be seen from the wording, various countries participate in this rule as publishers.

Here, various aspects describe how the ever-increasing volume of data should behave in the context of reducing CO2, i.e. in terms of climate change. Crucial to this are intentions such as charters, Fridays for Future, declarations of intent such as in Davos 2020, EU guidelines for reducing energy demand, etc. To this end, companies such as HPE, Ethernetics, etc., are providing provide products and software services (SaaS) to make these goals climate-positive as well as economically attractive.

Here, the process for safeguarding the power quality on the consumer side is defined according to PoCC as per IEC TR 63191.

Distributed Energy Resources (DER) are energy sources such as small power plants, wind turbines, or photovoltaic systems that contribute to stable energy production through aggregation.

DER facilities may be small-scale energy-generating renewable energy facilities such as photovoltaic, geothermal, or biogas facilities. In this context, one also speaks of distributed generation. The small-scale systems are integrated into the smart grid or microgrid of the low-voltage grid, which can lead to degradation of power quality due to voltage spikes or blackout. Distributed Energy Resources (DER) form a useful extension of the existing low-voltage grid and are typically installed close to consumption, such as on an electric customer’s rooftop. Energy generation is recorded in meters that are transmitted to the smart meter gateway (SMGW).

The capacity of DER power generation plants ranges from a few kilowatts (kW) to about 50 MW. Electricity can also be generated by generators or by water-powered microturbines.

Disruptive technologies are innovations that replace the winning streak of an existing technology, product or service, or drive it out of the market entirely, rendering obsolete the investments of previously dominant market players. Often, disruptions are not to be considered as a single element, but involve an upstream and downstream chain. For this reason, disruptive technologies from other or entirely new market competitors often present established companies with major challenges.

DranView is a power quality analysis software for Mavowatt and HDPQ series mobile meters. This enables professionals to quickly and easily display and evaluate power quality and monitoring data.

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) refers to the ability of a technical device not to disturb other devices by unwanted electrical or electromagnetic effects or to be disturbed by other devices. Involuntary mutual interference in electrical engineering is not only a matter of technology, but also of law. Power quality is thus a subchapter of EMC and is defined in IEC61000-x-xx.

EN 50600 defines the standards for data center facilities and infrastructures.

Characteristics of voltage in LV, MV and HV public supply networks (measurement at PCC). It also serves as a contractual safeguard for network quality between the energy supplier and the energy customer. It is not suitable for evaluating the power quality within a consumer network, since actual disturbances according to the PCC are often not reflected in the statistical evaluation.

EVU stands for an energy supply company that distributes energy to the PCC but can also generate energy.

Heatmaps are a method in energy management to clearly depict three-dimensional data in only two dimensions. Here, the two axes of the two-dimensional space represent two time dimensions (e.g. date and course of day), while the value dimension is visualized by a color gradient. This means that all consumption data for long periods (from several months to years) can now be displayed at a glance.

Many consumption patterns that are very difficult to see in the traditional consumption graph are immediately revealed by the heat map.

High voltage defines the transmission voltage in a network between 52kV (60kV) and 110kV.

Transmission networks in the range of 220 kV, 380 kV, 500 kV, 700 kV, 1150 kV. These are used for large-scale supply, form interconnected networks for supraregional energy exchange and the connection of large-scale power plants.

IEC stands for the International Electrotechnical Commission organization and defines international standards and conformity assessment for all electrical, electronic and related technologies.

Method for measuring the power quality. According to chapter 5.9.1 “Measurement method”: Measurement up to the 50th harmonic (bandwidth of 2.5 kHz at 50 Hz, requires a minimum sampling rate of 5 kHz).

IEC 61850 is an international standard that defines communication protocols for intelligent electronic devices in electrical substations. It is part of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Technical Committee’s reference architecture for electrical power systems. The abstract data models defined in IEC 61850 can be mapped to a number of protocols. Current assignments in the standard are MMS (Manufacturing Message Specification), GOOSE (Generic Object Oriented Substation Event), SMV (Sampled Measured Values) and Web Services. These protocols can run over TCP/IP networks or substation LANs using high-speed switched Ethernet to achieve the required sub-four millisecond response times for the protection relays.

GOOSE stands for “generic object-oriented substation event” and is a particularly fast communication service that functions independently of the communication between server (field control unit) and client (station control center).

MMS stands for Manufacturing Messaging Specification and is used for the object-oriented exchange of data in the production area. It is used for coupling distributed automation systems.

Interrange instrumentation group time codes , commonly known as IRIG time code , are standard formats for the transmission of timing information. Atomic frequency standards and GPS receivers for precise timing are often equipped with an IRIG output. The standards were created by the Tele Communications Working Group of the U.S. military’s Inter-Range Instrumentation Group (IRIG) , the standardization body of the Range Commanders Council. Work on these standards began in October 1956, and the original standards were accepted in 1960.

The original formats were described in IRIG Document 104-60, later revised and reissued in August 1970 as IRIG Document 104-70, and later that year upgraded to the status of a standard, IRIG Standard 200-70, as an IRIG document. The latest version of the standard is IRIG Standard 200-16, dated August 2016.

The IRIG Time Code is divided into the following subgroups, which differ from each other by the number of synchronization pulses transmitted per second, the data formats and the modulation techniques used:

• IRIG A: 1000 pulses per second
• IRIG B: 100 pulses per second
• IRIG D: 1 pulse per minute
• IRIG E: 10 pulses per second
• IRIG G: 10000 pulses per second
• IRIG H: 1 pulse per second

The ITIC curve is a modified version of the CBEMA power acceptance curve, but the concept remains unchanged. It was developed by a CBEMA working group that changed its name to the Information Technology Industry Council (ITI) in 1994. In addition, the ITIC curve was created in collaboration with EPRI’s Power Electronics Application Center (PEAC). The goal was to derive a curve that could better reflect the performance of typical single-phase 120-V, 60-Hz computers and their peripherals, as well as other information technology items such as fax machines, copiers, and point-of-sale terminals.

The ITIC curve has been applied to general power quality evaluation, although just like the CBEMA curve, it was developed primarily for 120 V computing devices. It is also used as a reference to define the resistance of various loads and devices to protect against power quality problems. This is because the curve is generally applicable to other devices that contain solid state devices, aside from being specifically applicable to computer type devices. However, one should be careful and remember that the ITIC curve is not intended to reflect the performance of ALL electronic-based devices. There are too many variables – power load, rated operating voltage level, and process complexity – to attempt to apply a one-size-fits-all ITIC curve

According to IEC [TR] 63191, this defines the network distribution according to the Point of Common Coupling (PoCC). Accordingly, on the consumer side.

Often the topics calibration, adjustment and certification are mixed or even confused with each other. During the calibration nothing else is examined, whether the respective measuring instrument supplies the accuracy of the measured data according to the criteria of the specification (e.g. according to IEC, etc.). In this process, variables are simulated on the input side of the measuring device by a calibrated generator, to which the measuring device reacts with an equivalent value. This output value must then correspond to the relevant specifications within the tolerance window. If this is not the case, the calibration has failed and the customer must decide whether a readjustment is an option for him. If the measuring instrument passes the calibration, this is confirmed by a calibration certificate. In the case of calibration, a distinction is also made between factory calibration and accredited calibration, which may only be performed by an accredited (officially approved) company.

Measuring instruments according to IEC 61000-4-30 Class A provide measured values that are comparable across measuring instruments and manufacturers. In case of legal cases, class A is mandatory.

IEC 61000-4-30 class S power quality analyzers are intended for basic/advanced power quality analysis and provide useful monitoring data. Instruments that meet the Class S performance requirements are used for statistical power quality surveys and contractual applications where there are no potential disputes, i.e. no comparable measurements are required. The accuracy and performance requirements for class S are less stringent than for class A and thus also set lower at price. They are often used in industrial and utility engineering.

The KPI stands for Key Performance Indicator, i.e. a key figure that indicatively shows a partial status of a situation. It is imperative that this figure be subjected to dynmaics in order to identify changes and derive measures from them. KPIs are often confused with overall targets, i.e. the result (e.g. target figures, budget figures, etc.). This leads to not following the actual triggers to reach the target and the result does not match the planned target. Therefore, KPIs should also monitor the triggers for target achievement.

A measurement campaign describes a specific measurement over a defined period of time. The time period depends on the type of measurement (e.g. EN 50160 requires a recording of at least 7 days) and the expected result (e.g. energy balance in the distribution network).

This International Standard applies to transmitters with electrical inputs and outputs to measure AC or DC electrical quantities. The output signal can be an analog DC current, an analog DC voltage or it can be in digital form. In the latter case, the part of the transmitter used for communication purposes must be compatible with the external system. This standard applies to transmitters used to convert electrical quantities such as current, voltage, active power, reactive power, power factor, phase angle, frequency, harmonic or harmonic content (distortion), apparent power into an output signal.

This standard is not applicable to instrument transformers conforming to the IEC 60044 series of standards, transducers for industrial process control conforming to the IEC 60770 series of standards, and instruments for measurement and monitoring of operational behavior (PMD) conforming to the IEC 61557-12 standard.

Swiss Federal Institute of Metrology (METAS) is the competence center of the Swiss Confederation for all questions of measurement, for measuring equipment and measuring methods. As such, it has the mandate to ensure that measurement in Switzerland can be performed with the accuracy required for the needs of business, research and administration. Through metrology, it thus also acquires an international character.

The term meter is often used abroad as a substitute for Power Monitoring Devices (PMD).

In electrical power engineering, medium voltage refers to high voltage in the range above 1 kV up to and including 52 kV. The upper limit is not clearly defined. Areas of application are the supply of smaller cities and interurban supply. Smaller power plants and larger industrial plants are also connected at this voltage level.

MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) describes an open network protocol for machine-to-machine communication that enables the transmission of telemetry data in the form of messages between devices. And this despite high delays or limited networks. In measurement technology, the use of the MQQT protocol is referred to as an IoT-compatible measurement connection.

The advantage of using the protocol is the reduction of communication layers, since the measuring devices no longer communicate exclusively via protocols, such as Modbus, IEC61850, REST API, etc. to higher-level systems, which in turn have to communicate the measurement data with other systems in a complex way downwards, sideways or even further upwards. Rather, the measuring device can deliver or receive data directly to various systems. Communication barriers are therefore dismantled (Industry 4.0).

Low voltage is considered to be the range up to 1,000 VAC and is usually located at grid level 7.

Urbanization is the spread of urban lifestyles. This can be expressed, on the one hand, in the growth of cities (physical urbanization or “urbanization” in the narrower sense), and, on the other hand, through infrastructural development of rural regions comparable with urban standards (functional urbanization) and through changes in the social behavior of the inhabitants of rural areas (social urbanization). While the term urbanization tends to stand for the expansion of old cities through building activity, commercial and industrial space, urbanization includes processes of social change.

This is always a much-discussed topic. Basically, there are four surge categories. These are indicated with Roman numerals from I – IV. The difference between the four overvoltage categories is the surge voltage resistance that the electrical devices have. Designers of electrical equipment specify the surge voltage with the selection of electrical components, wire cross-sections, clearances and creepage distances between components, insulation materials, etc. Thus, category IV has the highest shock resistance.

Quelleangabe: https://www.ueberspannungsschutz.com

PDCA, also called Deming Circle, stands for Plan-Do-Check-Action and was invented for quality assurance. The cycle describes continuous learning and improvement and has not lost its meaning since its first publication in the 1930s until today. However, the Plan and Do headings are often interchanged and confused, which can lead to confusion and stalls in processes. The Check & Action part is essential, as this is where the improvements are to be implemented. Essential here are key performance indicators (KPI, SPI), which behave indicatively and show the actual status.

Definition of a measuring device according to IEC 62586-1/2 for the analysis of power quality in power supply systems

The term PQM is often used as a substitute for the correct term PQI according to IEC.

The IEC 61557-12 standard describes the requirements for power measurement and monitoring devices (PMD) used to measure and monitor the electrical quantities in power distribution systems and optionally other external signals. These requirements also define the power in single-phase and three-phase AC or DC systems with nominal voltages of up to 1 000 V AC or up to 1 500 V DC

This item defines the contractual transfer point from the energy supplier to the consumer.

PQ is short for Power Quality and has become an internationally recognized synonym.

PQaaS stands for Power Quality as a Service and is based on the service understanding of the data center scene. The focus here is on services for all industry sectors, which not only relate to classical measurement alone, but extend further. For example, analyses, troubleshooting, consulting, software services, project planning, etc.

PQDIF, an acronym for Power Quality Data Interchange Format, is a file format specified in IEEE Standard 1159.3 that is used to exchange voltage, current, power, and energy measurements between software applications. PQDIF is maintained by the IEEE P1159.3 Task Force of the IEEE Working Group on Monitoring Electric Power Quality. This work is sponsored by the IEEE Power Quality Subcommittee.

Although the PQDIF format has been standardized according to IEEE 1159.3, variances in the data structure are part of everyday life. For this reason it is advisable to check the respective generated PQDIF format for correct readability. This is especially true in the context of higher-level software.

More information can be found on the IEEE P1159.3 Task Force website.

Developed in collaboration with EPRI® and Electric Utility partners worldwide, PQView 4 is the flagship product of Electrotek Concepts, Inc. – designed from the ground up as the industry’s best power quality data concentrator and analysis software. PQView can collect and store data from multiple sources and provide powerful data analysis and reporting capabilities through a responsive web-enabled user interface.

PPE stands for Personal Protective Equipment and is defined by standards and regulatory requirements.

Role Based Access Control is a method and design pattern for controlling access to files or services in multi-user systems or computer networks. The RBAC model was described by D. F. Ferraiolo and D. R. Kuhn in 1992 and adopted as ANSI standard 359-2004 in 2004.

A Sankey diagram is a special type of flow chart in which the flow quantities are indicated by arrows proportional to the quantity: The width of the arrow represents the quantity to scale.

Moreover, in a Sankey diagram, directed flows always run between two nodes (processes); consequently, they transport other information besides quantities, such as the division or structure of systems.

Sankey diagrams are thus an effective alternative to conventional flow charts or bar and pie charts, especially when it comes to representing energy flows and quantity flows in production plants.

Sankey diagrams are used, among other things and significantly, in energy management, facility management (building services engineering), process engineering or plant engineering.

The skin effect is the property of alternating currents where only the surface of a conductor is available for the transport of charge carriers. In the case of direct current, the entire conductor cross-section is flowed through by charge carriers. In the case of alternating current, eddy currents and electric fields are generated depending on the frequency, which displace the charge carriers into the skin of the power source. Here, the electric fields serve as carriers of the energy. However, this also reduces the cross-section of the conductor that can be used for the charge carriers, with the effective resistance of the conductor increasing. Simply put, the skin effect describes the tendency of a high-frequency alternating current to flow only through the outer layer of a conductor.

The SPI is basically the same as the KPI and stands for Success Performance Indicator, i.e. a key figure that indicates a partial status of a situation. It is imperative that this figure be subjected to dynmaics in order to identify changes and derive measures from them. Since KPI are often confused with overall targets, i.e. the result (e.g. target figures, budget figures, etc.), it is recommended to choose the expression on SPI. This leads to a better understanding of the actual triggers, i.e. the success factors for achieving the goal, and the result can certainly develop more positively towards the planned goal.

A wide range power supply is always used where no service socket can be found in the vicinity of a measurement object. So classically in the field of mobile measurements, e.g. in transformer stations, etc.. The wide range power supply is a voltage transformer with a high safety characteristic. It usually allows connection to the same location of the voltage taps of the actual voltage measurement. The wide-range power supply, depending on the manufacturer, can be designed in different forms. For example, with a socket for the PQI power supply, as an inline device or as a feature built directly into the PQI.